From The Paper “The History of Samarkand”

                        by Lobar Asrorova

         Chief Scientific Officer of the Treasury of                                              Sources 
         Doctor of Philosophy in History (PhD)

        International Islamic Academy of Uzbekistan

It is known from studying history that since ancient times, people have used writing as a means of communication and information exchange. Inscriptions were made on various objects, such as stones, bones, and ceramics. The need for writing compelled people to invent various tools for it, eventually leading to the invention of paper. Before the production of paper, that is, before our era, papyrus was used. It was produced from the 4th century BCE. Papyrus grew abundantly in the Nile Delta.

The process of papyrus manufacture, as well as its use, has been transmitted to us through ancient sources. Ancient papyri have survived to this day, although in limited numbers. The oldest of them date back to the 4th century BCE and include works such as Aristotle's writings and a letter from Hyperides.

Parchment as a Competitive Material

By the 2nd century BCE, there emerged a competitor to papyrus. Ptolemy V Claudius prohibited the export of papyrus from Egypt. During this period, a large library was established in Pergamon. The library required sheets of papyrus, but due to conflicts between Egypt and Pergamon, the library's operation was under threat. In desperation, artisans in Pergamon invented parchment as a substitute. They made a thick fabric from calf skin for writing on both sides. In Greek, it was called "Pergamon," and in Latin, it was called "membrana." Parchment was used from the 2nd century BCE to the 16th century CE. The most expensive parchment had a semi-transparent appearance and was made from the skin of new-born calves. This type of skin was referred to as "Virgin Skin," and valuable books were copied onto it.

Paper production was established a few centuries after parchment manufacture had begun. The earliest samples of paper were found in a cave tomb in northern China in 1957. Research indicated that these paper sheets were made 2000 years ago. Since then, the invention of paper has been attributed to Cai Lun, who lived in 105 CE. In China, according to al-Biruni (Islamic polymath, 973 – after 1050), paper was primarily made from hemp and hemp bark, and was processed with water.

Paper Production Across Nations

The secrets of paper production spread to Samarkand, and through Samarkand, they reached the world via prisoners of war captured during fighting between the Arabs and the Chinese in the Talas Valley in July 751 [3:289; 6:218; 12:273]. Samarkand paper dominated both Eastern and Western markets from this period until the end of the Middle Ages. From the 8th to the 19th century, this paper was used in the Middle East, Europe, Spain, France and Germany, as well as in Central Asia. Different types of Samarkand paper existed.

According to the researcher A. Hakimov, silk and bamboo were the materials primarily used in China for paper production. The main raw material for Samarkand paper was various pieces of fabric. This information is also mentioned in Ibn Nadim's work "Al-Fihrist," where the author, discussing the type of paper made by folding fabric, as opposed to Chinese paper, mentioned that there are various disagreements regarding the origin of this method (some say it was developed during the Umayyad period, while others claim it was during the Abbasid period). Samarkand paper mills produced smooth, hard (thin), and minimally coloured paper. Paper production technologies were kept secret in Samarkand for five centuries.

In 794 CE, during the rule of Harun al-Rashid, a paper mill was opened in Baghdad. Harun al-Rashid listed several types of paper popular at that time, including "Suleimani," "Nuhi" (produced by the Bukhara region and attributed to Nuh ibn Nasr al-Samani), "Jafari," "Tahiri," "Faruni," and others [4:23]. Additionally, there were papers like "Samarkand Sultan Paper" (distinguished by its whiteness, softness, and smoothness), "Samarkand Silk Paper" (also soft and smooth but pale yellow in colour), "Mir Ibragimi" (with white circular watermarks), and "Nimkanops Paper" (containing remnants of silk mixed with hemp bark, with a brown colour).

Rise and Fall of Paper Industry

During the time of Amir Timur, paper production was an industry of prime importance. In the 15th century, the cities of Samarkand and Bukhara were the largest centres of the paper industry. Among the papers of this period were "Silk Paper" (made exclusively from silk mulberry bark, without adding cotton fibres, mature, very beautiful, well-sized, clean, and smooth) and "Nimcotton Paper" (semi-silk, made from about fifty percent silk and hemp fiber). This paper was mature, heavy, and had a good grain). Additionally, in Kokand, types of paper named "Jaidari" and "Nim-Konoplya" were developed, but their quality was low.

On both sides of the paper, a thin layer of wheat flour paste ("ochor") was applied, and after drying in the shade, it was finished with a tooth or an agate shell ("muhra"). They polished the paper up to seven times to make it shine. This paper is called "ochor muhrali" If a calligrapher made a mistake while copying this paper, the letter could be recopied by rinsing it with a soft cloud of water and drying it with a small amount of starch. From this same paper, a special paper called "khaftrang" was used to copy various manuscripts, and the paper "abri bahar" was also used to glue the inner part of the cover.
In the early 18th century, there were 42 paper manufacturing enterprises in Samarkand and its surroundings. Due to the mutual struggle between the rulers of Bukhara and Samarkand, the region experienced economic decline, and the quality of paper production decreased. Masters moved to the villages of Kokand, Kaguzgar, and Chorku. Thus, the centre of paper production shifted to Kokand. Until the beginning of the 20th century, paper was produced by craftsmen. By the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries, paper production was discontinued in Samarkand, Bukhara, and Kokand. In other words, it was all over by 1924. Unpolished paper was produced in the village of Chorku until 1930.

Samarkand Paper and its Characteristics

Scholars from different eras praised Samarkand paper highly and provided various definitions of it. Below are these definitions, along with accounts of the reverence from ancient times for paper and for the individuals working in this field:

In the 10th century, Makdisi said, "Khwarazmian bows, Shashan vessels, and Samarkand paper had no equals." Abu Mansur Saalibi also depicted Samarkand paper as superior to Egyptian paper. Sultan Ali Mashhadi recommended writing only on Samarkand paper. Later, Vambery admitted, "The paper produced in Bukhara and Samarkand is used throughout Turkestan and the cities where grain has been sent."

In his book "Kitobu-l-kand," Najmuddin Umar Nasafi mentioned that in the 9th century, there existed a paper market in Samarkand, and one of the muhaddis (scholars of hadith), Abu Suleiman Dawud Marvazi (d. 281/895), acted as an intermediary in this paper market. He recorded valuable information about scholars such as Abu Muhammad Abdullah ibn Muhammad ibn Nasr Razi Varrak, Abu Ali Isma'il ibn Yahya Varraki Samarkandi, and many others engaged in paper production and trade [2:321]. Ehsan Zunun, an Arab Islamic scholar, narrated that in the shops in paper markets, varroki (paper sellers) gathered to exchange ideas about newly arrived books. Students actively participated in these scholarly discussions. One such market operated in Bukhara. Among the Bukharan scrolls were the historian Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Ahmad Gunjor, the shop of Muhammad Dallal, the jurist Salih Jazzra near the house of Kamil ibn Makkii ibn Muhammad ibn Vardan, Ahmad ibn Shuayb ibn Salih, Muhammad ibn Zakariya ibn Yahya ibn Abdullah ibn Dinar, and Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn Nazra. Ibn Muawia was famous [10:337].

Abdul Karim Samani, providing information about auxiliary workers associated with paper production in Samarkand, i.e. hazzamah (paper-packing workers), mentions that Abu Ahmad Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Ali ibn Hasan Hazzam Marvazi was one of the well-known individuals in this field. The source also provides information about Said ibn Hashim Kogazi Samarkandi, known by the surname "Kogizi" (Kogizi), who passed away in 259/873 CE [7:34; 83]. Hatib Baghdadi (d. 463/1070) also mentioned Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Muhammad ibn Jafar Kogizi Samarkandi in his "History of Baghdad" [1:32-33, 101].

Value of Paper

Since ancient times, the demand for paper has led to its popularity. Even in legal sources, we see the existence of various texts emphasising the importance of not wasting paper. For example, in the work titled "Salatu'l-Masudi," created in the 14th century, the following is stated: 

"In 'Hayratu'l-Fuqaha' and 'Hijlatu'l-Fuzala,' it is mentioned that 'Khawaja Abu Hafs Kabir Bukhari said: 'I could not pass by the stalls of paper sellers without performing ablution" [8:153, lines 21-23].

  In another part of the work "Hayratu'l-Fuqaha," the following text attributed to Imam Abu Hanifa is mentioned: "If you are impure, do not go where paper is sold. This is a matter of honour in Islam. To trample on written paper is to despise letters" [11:98b, vol.].

  The devaluation of paper, ironically, also led to an increase in its cost. Ahmad ibn Qadji Varrak (9th-10th century) bought paper for his entire inheritance at 800 or 700 dinars and wrote hadiths on it for years. Abu Ali ibn Shihab made a profit of 1025 dirhams from the paper, buying it for 5 dirhams and selling it for three nights. We can observe that even in the early Middle Ages, only a few individuals excelled in utilising this industrial sector, writing divans and selling them for 150-200 dirhams [1:425, 339-340]. Comparing the price of paper at that time with other prices (Asad ibn Abdullah's soldiers were paid 20 dirhams in 118/736, craftsmen earning good incomes received 10-15 dirhams per month, according to the founding documents of Ibrahim Tamgoch-khan, and madrasa stipends for students were 30 dirhams), in Basra and in places where lambs are raised, goat meat was very expensive (10 dirhams [3:305-306]). With a monthly salary, a master could buy 2-3 papers. For this reason, as mentioned earlier, legal sources contain instructions not to waste paper and to appreciate its value. There is even a legend that Khwarazmi forgave his friend for not writing a letter, jokingly stating that he lived far from Samarkand and that paper was extremely precious to him.

   The production of paper in Samarkand continues to this day. The paper produced in the Samarkand village of "Konigil" attracts the attention of foreign guests. In order to restore the glory of their ancient paper, Samarkand craftsmen conduct scientific research and manufacture various souvenirs from ancient raw materials [9].

   Based on the information provided, it can be concluded that Samarkand paper displaced Egyptian papyrus from the market, and paper production technologies were kept secret here for 5 centuries. Many types of paper were invented. The presence of paper shops and even separate paper markets in most cities of the Transoxiana (historical region of Central Asia), as well as the existence of various branches of paper production, indicate the wide development of this industry. Samarkand paper has not lost its significance to this day.

 Sources:

1. Abu Bakr Ahmad ibn Ali Khatib Baghdadi. Tarikhi Baghdad. – Beirut: Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyya, 2011. Vol. X. – P. 32-33, 101; Vol. IV. – P. 425., Vol. VII. 339-340.
2. Abu Hafs Umar ibn Muhammad Nasafi. Al-Qand fi zikri ulamo Samarkand / Yusuf Hodi tahriiri ostida. – Tehran: Oyina-i meros, 1420/1999.
3. Belenitsky A.M., Bentovich I.V., Bolshakov O.G. Medieval City of Central Asia. – Leningrad: Nauka, 1973. – P. 289. – P. 305-306.
4. Muhammad ibn Ishaq Nadim. Kitabu-l-Fihrist. Rizo Ibn Ali Zaynul Abidin Hoidiy Mozandaroni tahriiri ostida. – Tehran: 1971. Vol. I.
5. Najmuddin Umar ibn Muhammad ibn Ahmad Nasafi. Al-Qand fi zikri ulamoi Samarkand. – Tashkent: Uzbekistan Milliy Entsiklopediyasi, 2001.
6. Sa'olibi. Latoifu-l-ma'rif. – Cairo: 1960.
7. Sam'oniy. Ansob. Vol. II. – P. 34, Vol. IV. – P. 83.
8. Saloti Masudiy. Manbalar khazinasi. Toshbosma. No. 175.
9. To'raqulov Z. “Adolat” muhbir. http://www.gglit.uz/. 05.11.2012.
10. Ehsan Zunun Abdul Latif Somiri. At-tarikhu-l-hadori limadinati Bukhoro. (94-389/712-999). – Jordan: 1997.
11. Hayratu-l-fuqaho. Personal Library. Manuscript.
12. Hill D.R. Physics and mechanics Civil and hydraulic engineering Industrial processes and manufacturing, and craft activities. – UNESCO Publishing. 2000.